The Exploration of Neptune：A Noble Gas and Volatile Perspective
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摘要: 地外天体的探测目标主要是太阳系中离地球较近的行星和天体，例如水星、金星、月球、火星、木星、小行星67P和近地小行星25143糸川。目前，人类还没有明确提出对太阳系中两大冰巨行星天王星和海王星的探测计划。人类探测仍停留在“旅行者2号”探测器分别于1986年1月和1989年8月飞掠天王星和海王星时传回的数据。在过去的几十年间，越来越多类属冰巨行星的系外行星被发现，而且冰巨行星比类似木星和土星的气态巨行星数量更多，加深对冰巨行星的了解势在必行。其中，行星大气组成，特别是稀有气体和挥发分的分布尤为重要。详细回顾了对太阳系中各天体挥发分的探测及结果；总结了天王星和海王星的稀有气体和挥发分的浓度、分布和演化过程；讨论了探索冰巨行星的星际探测任务的流程、可行性以及探测器载荷选择。提出了利用离子阱质谱仪作为中国外太阳系探测任务中探索冰巨行星科学载荷的可行性。
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关键词:
- ice giants /
- Neptune /
- volatiles /
- noble gases /
- isotopic ratios /
- mass spectrometry /
- entry probe
Abstract: Most of the probes visiting other bodies in our Solar system only focused, due to technical shortcomings, on the exploration of the closer planets and planetary bodies and/or their natural satellites, i.e. Mercury, Venus, the Moon, Mars, and Jupiter, the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, or the 25143 Itokawa near-Earth asteroid. At present time, no specific missions to one of the two ice giants of our Solar System, Uranus and Neptune, has been planned. Our knowledge of Uranus and Neptune is, therefore, so far restricted to the data which have been collected during the flyby of the Voyager 2 mission, in January 1986 and August 1989, respectively, and to observations with the Hubble Space Telescope and the Keck Telescope. Ice giants are, in our galaxy, thought to be much more abundant than gas giant planets such as Jupiter or Saturn, therefore a better knowledge of ice giants is essential for our understanding of exoplanet candidates. Among other scientific goals, the atmospheric composition of ice giants, with a particular emphasis on their noble gas and volatile distribution, is of great significance, and can constrain models about their formation and evolution. In this review, we report, in a first part, the volatile inventories and the measurements in the planetary bodies of our Solar System; in a second part, we will discuss the scientific background about the concentration, distribution, and evolution of noble gases and volatiles in Uranus and Neptune, and finally describe a possible scenario of a future interstellar probe visiting one of the two ice giants as well as the feasibility of such a space mission, in term of payloads selection and mission profile. We will as well briefly evoke the possibility of using an ion trap mass spectrometer, a potential payload for the ice giant atmospheric exploration, onboard a Chinese interstellar mission to the outer Solar system.-
Key words:
- ice giants /
- Neptune /
- volatiles /
- noble gases /
- isotopic ratios /
- mass spectrometry /
- entry probe
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图 1 The internal structure of Uranus and Neptune，subdivided into a three-layer model：a hydrogen-helium envelope，ices，and a solid core（magnesium-silicate and iron），adapted and modified after the figure 12 of Guillot and Gautier[58]
Fig. 2 Elemental abundance ratios in the atmospheres of Jupiter，Saturn，Uranus，and Neptune relative to the solar abundances，such as（X/H）observed/（X/H）Solar，where X stands for the element of interest. A solar abundance is assumed with a ratio of 1，supersolar values are indicated with ratios > 1. The color domains represent the possible range of enhancements at the considered giant planets. This figure is adapted and modified after Mousis et al.[11]
Fig. 3 The different scenarios to explain the enrichments of volatiles at the ice giants，figure adapted and modified after Mousis et al.[11]
Fig. 4 Structure of the cloud layers in the ice giants based on Equilibrium Cloud Condensation Models（ECCM），based on Weidenschilling and Lewis[83]. The assumptions are the following：a temperature of 76 K at a pressure of 1 bar，an enrichment in C of 45 times the Solar value（Voyager data[84]），and O，N，and S are considered to be equal to Solar value. This figure is adapted and modified after the Figure 5 of Atreya et al.[13]
Fig. 5 The different scenarios for different D/H ratios at Neptune[86-87]，and the partition between ice and rock composition of Neptune’s interior. From the inferred D/H ratio of Guillot et al.[87]，Neptune’s core is 25% rock and between 60%～70% ice-dominated，whereas models presented in Feuchtgruber et al.[86] would imply a partition F = 0.14～0.32，and therefore 68%～86% of heavy components are made of rock，whereas 14%～32% consist of ice
Table 1 Elemental abundances in the gas and ice giant planets，normalized to Solar values，based on the Table 3 from Mandt et al.[10]
Element Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune He 0.8[56] 0.7 ± 0.1[68] 0.9 ± 0.2[73] 1.2 ± 0.2[77] Ne 0.1[64] — — — O 0.4 ± 0.1[65] （1.6 ± 0.29）× 10-4[69] — — C 4.3 ± 1.1[65] 9.6 ± 1.0[70] 41.5 ± 16.7[74-75] 72.1 ± 19.3[74-75] N 4.1 ± 2.0[65] 2.8 ± 1.1[71] — — S 2.9 ± 0.7[65] 12.05[72] 22.5 ± 11.3[76] 22.5 ± 11.3[78] P 3.3 ± 0.4[66] 11.2 ± 1.3[66] — — Ar 2.5 ± 0.8[67] — — — Kr 2.2 ± 0.6[67] — — — Xe 2.1 ± 0.6[67] — — — 
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Table 2 Elemental isotopic ratios in the Sun Jupiter，Saturn，Uranus，and Neptune，based on the Table 3 from Atreya et al.[13]
Elements Sun[90] Jupiter[91] Saturn[91] Uranus[88] Neptune[86] D/H （2.0 ± 0.4）× 10–5 （2.6 ± 0.7）× 10–5[92] （$ {1.70}_{-0.45}^{+0.75} $）× 10–5[93] （4.4 ± 0.4）× 10–5 （4.1 ± 0.4）× 10–5 12C/13C 0.0112 0.0108 ± 0.0005 0.0109 ± 0.001 — — 14N/15N （2.27 ± 0.08）× 10–3 （2.30 ± 0.03）× 10–3 < 2.0 × 10–3 — — 36Ar/38Ar 5.50 ± 0.01 5.60 ± 0.25 — — — 136Xe/Xe 0.0795 0.076 ± 0.009 — — — 134Xe/Xe 0.0979 0.091 ± 0.007 — — — 132Xe/Xe 0.2651 0.290 ± 0.020 — — — 131Xe/Xe 0.2169 0.203 ± 0.018 — — — 130Xe/Xe 0.0438 0.038 ± 0.005 — — — 129Xe/Xe 0.2725 0.285 ± 0.021 — — — 128Xe/Xe 0.0220 0.018 ± 0.002 — 20Ne/22Ne 13.6 13 ± 2 — — — 3He/4He 1.66 × 10–4 （1.66 ± 0.05）× 10–4 — — —
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Table 3 Comparison of the different types of instruments used for noble gas and volatile measurements
Mass Spectrometers Mass resolutionm/Δm Characteristics Time-of-flight-mass spectrometer（TOF） ~1 000* to 30 000[97] 350 000[98] - Can achieve really high mass resolution
- High mass rangeMagnetic sector mass spectrometer Orbitrap 100 000 with m/z = 400m/Δm ~ m-1/2 - Achieve really high mass resolution
- Compact designQuadrupole and ion trap < 1 000 - Sufficient resolution to separate adjacent mass lines
- Cannot resolve isobaric interferencesOther complementary instruments Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer（GCMS） - Powerful analysis method- Equipped Viking，Cassini
-Huygens，MSL on Curiosity，etc.Tunable Laser spectrometer（TLS） - Isotopic ratios of selected molecules
- Ultra-high spectral resolution
- High accuracies（few % for species，few ‰ for isotopes）Helium Abundance Detector（HAD） - Complementary to mass spectrometer
- Very compact design
- Energy-efficient*ex. of RTOF onboard ROSINA，which has a m/Δm = 5 000
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Table 4 List of ion trap mass spectrometers（ITMS）in space or under development，mass range and resolution（m/Δm）
Space missions Year Name Characteristics Team Open University 2004—2015 Rosetta-Ptolemy Mass range：12～150 Da
m/Δm = 150NASA-ESA 2018 ExoMars-MOMA Mass range：50～1 000 Da
m/Δm = 50～500ISS mission JPL 2010—2012 VCAM Mass range：15～100 Da
m/Δm = 220JPL 2019 SAM Mass range：10～300 Da
m/Δm = 800Further developments NASA — LITMS Mass range：20～2 000 Da JPL — MARINE Mass range：10～320 Da
m/Δm = 750
m/Δm = 4 000 @ 10～80 Da
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Table 5 Comparison of performances between ITMS and QMS
payload Name Space missions（Team） Mass/kg Power/W Mass range/Da Dynamic
rangeSensitivity/
（ct·s–1·Torr–1）ITMS[108-109] Rosetta-Ptolemy 67P/C-G 4.5（MS：0.5） 10（MS：1） 12～150 — 1 × 1010 ExoMars-MOMA Mars 9.3 70 50～1 000 — — VCAM ISS 30.3（MS and pumps：5.4） 105（MS：42） 15～100 — 2 × 1012 SAM ISS 9.55 45 10～300 — 2 × 1013 LITMS NASA 20～2 000 — — MARINE JPL 7.3 14 10～320 1 × 106 1 × 1015 QMS ONMS[108] Pioneer（Venus） 3.8 12 1～46 — 2 × 1013 NMS[109] Nozomi/Planet-B（Mars） 2.8 7.4 1～60 — 3 × 1012 GPMS[52] Galileo（Jupiter） 13.2（with pump） 13（+12） 2～150 1 × 108 — GCMS[55] Cassini-Huygens（Titan） 17.3（with pump） 110 2～141 1 × 108 1 × 1014 SAM[49-50] Curiosity（Mars） 40（all） 175 2～535 — 2 × 1014 INMS[110] Cassini Orbiter（Saturn and satellites） 10.3 23.3 1～99 1 × 108 2 × 1014 NMS[111] LADEE（Moon） 11.3 34.4 2～150 1 × 108 6 × 1014 NGIMS[112] MAVEN（Mars） 12 36 2～150 1 × 108 6 × 1014 MENCA[113] MOM（Mars） 3.56 29 1～300 1 × 1010 —
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